Most African Families Still Depend on Subsistence Agriculture.
Articles
Factors affecting subsistence farming in rural areas of nyandeni local municipality in the Eastern Cape Province
Siphesihle Q.I; Lelethu Grand.Two
IMSc Student at the University of Fort Hare: Department of Agricultural Economic science and Extension. University of Fort Hare, P/Bag X1314, Alice, 5700; E-mail: siphesihleqange@gmail.com
IiDr. L. Mdoda. Lecturer and Researcher: Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Fort Hare. University of Fort Hare, P/Bag X1314, Alice, 5700. Tel: 0406022431; East-mail: lelethu.mdoda@gmail.com/ lmdoda@ufh.air conditioning.za, ORCID: 0000-0002-5402-1304
Correspondence
ABSTRACT
Agronomics is the foremost locomotive of the economic growth for Sub-Saharan African countries, particularly South Africa. Subsistence agriculture is ane of the imperative segments in the South African economy and it remains a substantial sector for livelihood generation. Agricultural activities have an ability to provide nutrition, economic, social status and reduce rural poverty. Nevertheless, subsistence farming has experience significant declined over the by 10 years due to climate change, scarcity of resources, lack of farming equipment and lack of extension services. Therefore, this paper seeks to examine factors affecting subsistence farming in rural homesteads of Nyandeni Local Municipality. Purposively, the data was collected from 120 households. To examine the factors affecting subsistence product, multiple regression was run. Study results reveal that the majority of the farming households are male-headed with an average age of 60 years with a household size of 6 people in the households. The study reveals that historic period, gender, and employment accept an adverse influence subsistence farming product while didactics, extension services, household size, farming experience, and income have a positive human relationship with subsistence farming. Thus, the study recommends authorities empowerment and preparation services that will increase the number of women and youth participating in farming. Further to that, government must promote sustainable food production past ensuring collaboration of all stakeholders in regime, individual sector and NGOs or CBOs.
Key words: Agricultural productivity, Subsistence farming, Poverty.
1. INTRODUCTION
Agriculture has a momentous role in contributing to rural economic growth and ensuring food security (Masuku, Selepe & Ngcobo, 2017). In Africa, the bulk of rural households generates their livelihoods from agriculture and agricultural related activities (Poulsen, Mcnab, Clayton, & Neff, 2015). Subsistence agriculture plays a fundamental role in the provision of better living and food security in evolving of rural communities (Section of Agronomics, Forestry & Fisheries, 2016). Mashamaite (2014) stipulated that subsistence agriculture deliver food security to rural families by decreasing food prices through improved food supply, creating employment prospects for the poor, enlightening family income and providing food for family ingesting. Baiphethi & Jacobs (2009) designate that subsistence agriculture accounts for over 90% of the food supply in most emerging republics. Heger, Zens & Bangalor (2018) highlighted that about 60% of Africa's population is dependent on agricultural activities. In rural areas, farming plays a vital role specially when information technology comes to income generation. Moreover, agriculture is the nearly contributing sector to the GDP of the economy in many countries, as compared to other sectors; in both developed and developing countries (Sertoglu, Ugural & Bekun, 2017; Mehrara & Baghbanpour, 2016).
Co-ordinate to Mugambiwa & Tirivangasi (2017) and Dwesini (2015), farm production is more of import in rural areas of Southward Africa every bit it alleviates poverty and creates more chore opportunities. Kibirige & Obi (2015) stated that nearly 4.75 one thousand thousand Due south Africans are employed in the agricultural sector, however, majority of them are engaged in subsistence farming. Nethengwe, Uhunamure, & Tinarwo, (2018) and the agricultural sector in South Africa contributes about 10% of formal employment, contributing around 2.six% of Gdp. Household farming method or subsistence farming is by and large practiced in rural areas considering it is price effective as compared to large-scale farming (Tibesigwa & Visser, 2016). Tibesigwa & Visser (2016), declared that in Africa, virtually xx.7% of families are tangled in agriculture while 65% of these families are involved in agriculture decently for subsistence devotions to meet family nutrient ultimatum. Subsistence farming is more feasible in rural areas because it is cheaper and less labour intensive. Subsistence production utilizes family labour because it is family based production and they only sell surplus (World Bank, 2018; Sibhatu & Quim, 2017). Moreover, production inputs that are required in subsistence farming could be bought from local markets considering they are produced locally. Subsistence farming does not need much of educational knowledge; it can be practiced using indigenous knowledge (Mathebula, Molokomme, Jonas & Nhemachena, 2017, Aliber & Hart, 2012).
Farming, especially subsistence farming, is declining at an increasing charge per unit in Due south Africa. Many rural households in Eastern Cape about 78%, generate their income and livelihoods from subsistence farming (Bedemo, Getnet, Kassa, & Chaurasia, 2013). However, stated that well-nigh rural households' income is generated from other sources such grants, migrant labour and selling of goods rather than agricultural activities, hence the decrease in the subsistence farming. Many factors are stated to be influencing subsistence farming. Information technology has been found rural households accept land but lack the motivation to practice farming due to express access to inputs and poor infrastructure hence their farming is inefficient and decreasing (Mathebula et al., 2017). Subsequently, poverty is dominant in rural areas than it is on a national level, moreover, Mtero (2017) added that rural households have recognised other various sources of livelihoods rather than farming. Other sources include, the renting of animals for traction, sale of labour and off-farm full-time and seasonal employment, hence rural households have a tendency to purchase even vegetables that they have potential to produce (Sibhatu and Qaim 2018). This implies that rural households are no longer investing more in subsistence farming. Therefore, this raises a concern in a pregnant change in rural livelihoods and what means can be done to overcome this situation considering it results to more poverty and food insecurity in rural areas. For case, in rural areas, decline in subsistence farming is attributed with longer dry spells of drought, inadequate water and food availability, tainted soils and unproductive farming methods (Myeni, Moeletsi, Thavhana, Randela, & Mokoena, 2019). Consequently, poverty is more prevalent in rural areas than urban areas as subsistence farmers and households still living below the poverty line in rural areas (Khapayi & Celliers, 2016). Additionally, subsistence farmers lack availability and accessibility on infrastructure which are necessary for farming (Mazibuko & Antwi, 2019).
Agronomical production in Eastern Cape, especially in Nyandeni is predominantly depends on rain fed agriculture and less resources base for food production which leads to low productivity (Yous et al., 2010). Nkonya, Gerber & Baumgartner (2012) postulated that state degradation is some other problem which rural dwellers are faced with equally the World is losing one-3rd of the top soil state faster than new soil is forming, this is adversely affecting food production of the poor people. These problems take intensified due to climate change and the vulnerability of the land, especially those farming households whose means have never been comfy in the best of times, will exist even more prominent. In the province, extreme weather events like droughts and floods, gradual increases in temperatures and increased variability in annual rainfall appear to be common as result of climate change. These changes are seemingly having a damaging effect on the rural poor (Myeni et al., 2019). Dealing with these issues will remain major concerns. But the precise nature of the vulnerability of the rural communities to these issues has non been systematically studied in recent years. The yield level of major crops has declined or remained the aforementioned and is declining to meet the population growth rate and decline in own food production. However, the depletion and deposition of land and water pose serious challenges to producing enough agronomical products to encounter the growing need brought by ascension population (Ndabeni, 2016). This means food production has to improve using the same or fewer natural resources.
The reject in subsistence production is mainly due to many factors such as institutional and technical factors. However, farming nether the subsistence farming is characterised past low levels of production technology and small-sized farm with production largely for subsistence purposes, leaving trivial marketable surplus (Govendor, Pillay, Siwela, Modi & Mabhaudhi, 2016). The reject is mainly due to lack of supportive organizations that represent (such every bit Extension services), serve them and their infrastructure is poorly adult. In addition, access to affordable credit is one of the virtually important factor affecting production and therefore income of the farming households. The report, therefore, contains an ongoing tendency in rural areas where subsistence farming is low or decreasing. Rural households tend to purchase food from the markets than they would produce for themselves. Thus, it is necessary to examine factors that influence subsistence farming in rural areas of Nyandeni Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province. That will allow evaluating the causes and factors influencing households in subsistence farming and that will help policymakers in planning strategies that could improve subsistence production in rural areas.
ii. METHODOLOGY
ii.1 Study area
The report was steered in Nyandeni Local Municipality (NLM). The NLM is one of the v municipalities which fits to the OR Tambo Commune Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa and assembly up almost a quarter of its ecological region. Nyandeni Local Municipality is positioned in the Eastern fragment of the Transkei expanse of the Eastern Cape Province. It is adjoined in the north by Mhlontlo, in the south by the Indian Ocean, in the e past Port St Johns, and in the west past Male monarch Sabata Dalindyebo. The Nyandeni Local Municipality is a Group B metropolis under OR Tambo District Municipality. Nyandeni Local Municipality entails of the twofold previous authoritative constituencies of Libode and Ngqeleni. The dominated tribe in this region is Mpondos with well-nigh 90% while the remaining ten% is the mixture of Whites and Zulu speaking people. The municipality has ii 474 km2 with a population of 309 702 people. The NLM have 61 867 households with an average of 5 people in the household.
The NLM is one of the municipalities under the OR Tambo District Municipality with a high unemployment charge per unit, which is not surprising as the Eastern Cape Province has a high unemployment rate and poverty rate as the bulk of households are living under the poverty line. Households in NLM are deriving their livelihoods through engaging in farming every bit the majority of the households are not working and fully practicing agriculture for a living. Households in Nyandeni Local Municipality rely on social securities and farming to keep up their households. The master agricultural activities being practices in NLM are ingather, vegetable, and livestock farming equally information technology is customary that households must take one type of farming as a ways of providing food and income for the household. NLM has a fertile land which is favorable for all the iii types of farming and climate is moderate which encourages farming. The study was washed in six villages which were practicing subsistence farming.
2.two Sampling process and sample size
The report made utilize of a descriptive research approach. The study fabricated employ of stratified sampling to choose smallholder farmers that exercise subsistence agriculture in the Municipality. The study made practice of stratifying as the researchers were separating livestock farmers and crop farmers. Purposive sampling and random sampling were used to develop the desired sample size. Purposive sampling was used because information technology is easier to make generalizations about subsistence agronomical in the study region. Random sampling was then used to select subsistence farmers in the Municipality. The sample size was 120 subsistence farmers from Nyandeni Local Municipality. The selected farmers were practicing both ingather and vegetable farming in their land for.
2.3 Information Drove
Principal data was collected for this study through face-to-face interviews. Following that, a semi-structured questionnaire was designed by the researchers based on the review from the literature. The semi-structured questionnaire was first pre-tested and was overseen to the interviewees with the help of highly skilled enumerators who speaks the local languages (IsiXhosa) fluently. The final version of the questionnaire was later administered to the farmers' caput and in the absence of the head, the oldest member of the subcontract was called. The information on the semi-structured questionnaire includes farmers' demographic features, asset endowments, production and farming information, reasons for practicing subsistence farming, challenges and factors influencing subsistence farming in the written report are.
2.iv Analytical Framework
Afterwards collecting the data, information was entered on Excel. Data cleaning, and management of missing data was too done. The study made utilize of two analytical software's for analysis which were SPSS version 24 and STATA xiv. The study used descriptive statistics and multiple regression analysis.
ane.5 Multiple regression
The study fabricated employ of multiple linear regression model to examine factors affecting subsistence farming in rural areas of Nyandeni Local Municipality. Saqib, Kuwornu, Panezia & Ali (2018), Meyer & Nishimwe-Niyimbanira (2016) stated that equally a predictive analysis, the multiple linear regression is used to explain the human relationship betwixt i continuous dependent variable and two or more independent variables. The goal is to gauge and model the relationship between the fix of hypothesized causal variables to understand their influence over subsistence farming. Explanatory variables that were estimated include gender, age, marital condition, educational level, household size, production sold, amount per production sold, access to extension services, member of farm organization and social condition. The multiple regression model that was used in this study can exist described as follows:
The empirical model was specified as in equation (two):
Where:
Y = dependent variable (Subsistence farming)
X1 to Xn = independent variables (family size, sex activity, historic period, level of education, subcontract experience, extension service, marital status, source of income, household income and employment status.)
β 0 = the value of Y when all of the contained variables are equal to zero
β 1 To β n = explanatory coefficients
ε = the accepted error.
1.6 Data
This section represents data which was collected from subsistence farmers in the Nyandeni Local Municipality.
Table 1
Gender:
This refers to the gender of the household head. About homesteads are headed past females. That may exist truthful because males tend to exist migrant labourers in urban surface area or cities. Women are causeless to be participating more in agricultural activities considering they are always taking intendance of habitation activities in most cases.
Historic period:
Age is influential especially when it comes to agronomical activities. All the same, the literature reveals that many individuals that are participating in farming are old people that may be caused by the fact that they grew up farming and that was the only livelihood strategy that is cheaper to them. Therefore, the expected outcome of the study regarding age is that old people are more involved in subsistence farming.
Farming Experience:
Farming experience gives household an opportunity of acquisition poverty. The more the household head has more feel in farming, the more the household volition practise subsistence farming.
Family size:
Family size is essentially the total number of persons residing in 1 household. The literature reveals that family size tends to influence food consumption in the household. This simply means that large family size results to a high level of food consumption and vice versa. Therefore, it is expected that household with large family unit size are more involved in subsistence farming with the intent of increasing food availability.
Pedagogy level:
Education determines the literacy charge per unit. People who are educated take various ways of acquiring information from various sources. Therefore, it is anticipated that educated people will not participate in subsistence production instead they will invest in off-farm activities.
Household income:
Household income sometimes tin be used to point the welfare of the household. Income also determines the monthly household expenditure. Therefore, it is assumed that households with high income will invest their income with non-farm activities. Information technology is predictable that households that take high income will not do subsistence farming.
2. FINDINGS AND Give-and-take
3.1 Socioeconomic characteristics of rural households
Table ii shows that the majority of households in the study area were male-headed (60%) and 40% female headed. This displays that subsistence farming households were males, which may be credited to the comprehensive labour obligation. The average historic period of the household heads was 60 years with an average family unit size of vi individuals per household. Lilenstein, Woolard, & Leibbrandt (2018) also discovered that in rural areas, many households are headed by males. The average age of the household head amidst smallholder irrigators is 60 years. This ways that agriculture in the written report areas is dominated past elderly people, probably considering of mass retrenchments at the mines in the wake of mechanization of mining operations that began in 2010 (Kibirige, 2013). These results may exist true because youth has adapted to engineering science and they migrate to urban areas and cities to find improve livelihoods and opportunities (Bhandari & Ghimire, 2016). The study results revealed that farmers were married with 66% and that assisted in provision of family labour. The bulk of the farming households have chief education, having spent approximately x years in schoolhouse simply a handful of respondents did not have any kind of instruction. This means that subsistence farmers were able to understand farming information and market information. Subsistence farmers had a farm size of 2 Ha which they were using to do crop and vegetable farming.
Family size averaged 6 persons. Farming experienced was 10 years on average while 86% of farming households revealing they practice not take admission to any extension services. The report revealed that 68% of farming households are members of farm organizations and most of these farming households do not work anywhere every bit their sole occupation is farming equally they derive their livelihoods from farming. Most respondents (36%) earned betwixt ZAR 1 001 and ZAR three,000.00 while viii% earned above ZAR 7,000-ZAR 10,000.
1.2. Benefits of subsistence farming in rural area
Table 2 illustrates benefits of subsistence farming to rural areas of NLM. The study results revealed that the chief benefit and reason for subsistence farming was strictly to provide food for home consumption with 66.7%. The results concord with literature that many farmers practice farming to derive livelihood as these results has indicated. Additionally, and then, these farmers do not have whatsoever form of employment equally farming is their solely occupation for living.
The results further depicted that farmers do generate income when they have surpluses with 25%. Lastly, they practice apply laborers during harvesting period for assistance in harvesting with 8.3%. The results display that subsistence farming had a pregnant part in rural areas of Nyandeni Local Municipality.
3.i Challenges faced past subsistence farmers
The literature review revealed that subsistence farming in Nyandeni Local Municipality is decline in with several factors. Table 4 beneath is displaying challenges which are fundamental to the reduction of subsistence farming in the study area. Farmers were choosing more than 1 challenge they were facing in farming. The principal challenge which challenges subsistence farming in the study area was funding and noesis with 75%. This is crucial challenge because farmers in the study expanse had no source of funding which would accept assisted them in purchasing mod farming inputs instead of using traditional and obsolete farming technique. The lack of knowledge is contributing to decline of farming as these farmers had only chief education which is just basic education which do non contribute much in farming and which was the reason of using ethnic knowledge for farming. Lack of water availability (73%) was another claiming.
This had contributed to decline in subsistence farming due to changing climate which led to prolong dry out spells as result of drought, making information technology very hard for farmers to take water available for farming. The lack of extension services (63%) was another challenge. This is the main cause because households in the study area they just farm using indigenous knowledge not being assisted. They lack pesticides and herbicides for diseases, lack improved seeds which withstand climate variability and knowledge in terms of farming, such factors contributed vastly to decline in subsistence farming. Lastly, lack of farming equipment is one the challenges that subsistence farmers agreed that it contributed to refuse in farming.
three.2 Factors disturbing subsistence farming in rural areas
The multiple regression results for factors affecting subsistence farming are presented in Tabular array v. The dependent variable in the multiple regression was subsistence farming. The explanatory variables were quantified as those related to socioeconomic factors of rural household practicing subsistence farming. For all the variables with a positive coefficient, it implies that as any of them increases, then does Food Product. Table 3 summarizes the empirical results of multiple regression. Based on the results in Table 3, the Pseudo Rtwo is seventy%, and it is an acceptable level, implying that the model's estimates fit the information. And the adjusted R2 is 68% with a p-value of 0.000 indicating that all the explanatory variables accept a significant influence on food product by rural households. The significant level was 5% and ane% respectively. The direction of influence of the variable is shown by the signs of the coefficients. A positive sign of the coefficient implies that the detail variable has no influence on the household product and a negative value on the coefficient shows that the item variable has influence on the household production. Table v shows the estimated coefficient, standard mistake and significance value of the variables in the model.
The activities in households are controlled by the household head. Age usually influence one's health condition; thus information technology can exist stated that old people are more likely to have health problems. When the household head stops participating in agronomical activities, information technology is likely that everyone in the household neglect agricultural activities. The results reveal a negative human relationship betwixt historic period and subsistence farming, hence the negative coefficient. From the results, age has a negative coefficient, meaning that age has negative influence on subsistence farming status. That clearly demonstrate that, the more people get older, their participation in agricultural practices decreases. This simply means that old people participate less in agricultural activities. Mashamaite (2014) stated that age influences productivity in agriculture.
Rural households are generally headed by males (60 per cent). The results reveal a negative relationship that exists between sex and subsistence farming in rural areas. Sex has a negative coefficient and is significant at one per cent significance level. This relationship means that male-headed households are more likely not to produce their ain food through subsistence farming. Mathebula et al. (2017) besides found that females participate more in agricultural activities and males migrate to cities to look for jobs to await subsequently their families.
At that place is a positive relationship that exists between family size and subsistence farming product. Family size is significant at 1 per cent significance level. Davis, Di Giuseppe & Zezza (2017) stated that household size sometimes determines the food consumption of the household. The results, therefore, mean that the larger the household size, the more the household is likely to produce its nutrient through subsistence farming. This may be because there is enough farm labour through family labour. Notwithstanding, subsistence production becomes necessary because information technology increases food availability in the household.
Education plays a crucial role in agriculture, equally it determines the literacy rate. It makes it like shooting fish in a barrel for an private to larn information from various sources. Teaching widens i'due south chances of beingness formally employed. When i is formally employed, they are unlikely to participate in agricultural activities. Still, with that being said, education has a positive effect on subsistence farming in rural areas. The results reveal that years spent in school is significant at 5 per cent significance level. Sihlobo & Nel (2016) also concur that education makes farming more than innovative as in that location is engineering that is being developed every day. The results approximate that the more than the years a farmer spend in school increases, at that place greater is their involvement in subsistence farming in rural households.
Extension service tends to be inefficient in rural areas. Lyne, Jonas & Ortmann (2018) divers extension service as the educational activity aspect that is received past farmers. Rural households lack information and innovations in agriculture. Provision of proper extension services to rural people would issue in better and improved agriculture in rural areas. The results indicate that extension service has a positive influence in subsistence farming in rural areas. Extension service has a positive coefficient and is significant at 5 per cent significance level. This merely means that a unit increase in extension service results in an increase in subsistence farming in rural areas.
Experience in farming encourages people to participate in agricultural activities. The more people participate in farming the more they see its benefits than purchasing everything from the markets. The results propose that there was a positive relationship that exists between subsistence farming and farming experience. It is pregnant at 5 per cent pregnant level and has a positive coefficient. Mathebula (2015) stated that farming experience extends a zeal of farming in rural households and it assists in innovating new skills in the field.
Household income is directly proportional to own-food production. That means income and subsistence farming were positively related. The results show a positive coefficient of income and it was significant at 1 per cent significance level. People with high income were probable to be involved in agricultural activities since they tin beget agricultural inputs. The results signal that a unit increase in household income level results in an increase subsistence farming. Households with petty or no reliable income are hesitant to invest the money they have in agriculture; they rather buy something to eat at the electric current moment. Mashamaite (2014) suggested that rural households must invest more in agronomics because income may not be enough to meet household expenditure.
Employment status negatively influences subsistence farming. The results indicate a negative coefficient and employment was pregnant at 5 per cent significance level. Households with employed heads were likely not to produce their nutrient, they buy from the market. Employed people have no time to participate in agricultural activities, they invest their fourth dimension in their jobs. Unemployed individuals tend to have part in agricultural production because they believe information technology is cheaper than to purchase from the markets. Mashamaite (2014) stated that most people in rural areas are unemployed and are dependent on social grants to accept food on the table.
CONCLUSION
The study was investigating factors affecting subsistence farming in Nyandeni Local Municipality. The written report results revealed that subsistence farming in the written report area was practiced by male with an boilerplate historic period of 60 years and family size of 6 people per household. Farming was their chief occupation equally households in the study area were non working with 62%. Subsistence farmers had a subcontract size of ii Ha which they were using to practice crop and vegetable farming with a farming experience of 10 years. Households were strictly practicing subsistence farming to provide food for home consumption and only sell surplus for income generation every bit to supplement their social grant securities. Subsistence farming in the study area was failing considering majority of the farmers lack funding and knowledge, lack of water availability, lack of extension services and lack of farming equipment. The report concludes that subsistence farming is influenced past socio-economic factors such as age, sexual activity, and family size, admission to extension services, farming experience, employment, household income and education status. Therefore, the written report recommends that policymakers and government must embark in education trainings which are aimed in increasing importance of farming in rural areas. The study further suggests that government and NGO extension personnel must be fabricated available in rural areas and so that they tin can disseminate farming information. The authorities must promote sustainable nutrient production by ensuring collaboration of all stakeholders in government, private sector and NGOs or CBOs.
References
ALIBER, K. AND HART, T.G., 2009. Should subsistence agriculture be supported as a strategy to accost rural nutrient insecurity? Agr, 48(4): 434-458. [ Links ]
ALIBER, Thou. AND MDODA, L. 2015. The direct and indirect economical contribution of small-scale black agriculture in S Africa. Agrekon, 54: (2), 18-37. [ Links ]
AKINYEMI, B.E. AND MUSHUNJE, A. 2019. Land ownership and usage for agriculture: Empirical testify from Due south African Living Conditions Survey, Cogent Social Sciences, 5 (1): 1663691. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1663691. [ Links ]
BAIPHETHI, 1000.N. AND JACOBS, P.T. 2009. The contribution of subsistence farming to food security in South Africa. Agr, 48(four): 459-482. [ Links ]
BEDEMO, A., GETNET, K., KASSA, B. AND CHAURASIA, S. 2013. Off-subcontract labor supply decision of adults in rural Federal democratic republic of ethiopia: Double hurdle approach. J. Agri. Eco. Dev., two (4): 154-165. [ Links ]
BHANDARI, P. AND GHIMIRE, D. 2016. Rural Agricultural Modify and Individual Out-migration. Rur. Soc., 81 (four): 572-600. [ Links ]
DAVIS, B., DI GIUSEPPE, S. AND ZEZZA, A. 2017. Are African households (not) leaving agronomics? Patterns of households' income sources in rural Sub-Saharan Africa. Foo. Pol., 67: 153-174. [ Links ]
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, & FISHERIES (DAFF). 2016. Economic Review of the Southward African Agriculture 2016/17. [ Links ]
DWESINI, North. E. 2015. The implications of smallholder agricultural productivity growth for poverty alleviation in post-apartheid South Africa. Published M. Dissertation, University of Fort Hare, RSA. [ Links ]
GOVENDER, L., PILLAY, Thousand., SIWELA, M., MODI, A. AND MABHAUDHI, T. 2016. Food and Nutrition Insecurity in Selected Rural Communities of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa-Linking Human Nutrition and Agriculture. Int. J. ENV. RES. Pub. Hea, fourteen(ane): 17. [ Links ]
HEGER, M., ZENS, Yard. AND BANGALOR, Thousand. 2018. Does the environs affair for poverty reduction? The role of soil fertility and vegetation vigor in poverty reduction. Washington DC: The World Bank. [ Links ]
KHAPAYI, M. AND CELLIERS, P.R. 2016. Factors limiting and preventing emerging farmers to progress to commercial agricultural farming in the King William's Town area of the Eastern Greatcoat Province, South Africa. S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 44 (i):25 - 41. [ Links ]
KIBIRIGE, D. AND OBI, A. 2015. Agricultural efficiency of smallholder farmers in Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Int. J. Eco. Com. Human being., 3(9): 269-289. [ Links ]
KIBIRIGE, D. 2013. The impact of human dimensions on smallholder farming in the Eastern Greatcoat Province of South Africa. Published Thesis, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa. [ Links ]
LILENSTEIN, Grand., WOOLARD, L. AND LEIBBRANDT, Chiliad. 2018. In-piece of work poverty in South Africa: The bear on of income sharing in the presence of high unemployment. In Handbook on in-work poverty. Edward Elgar Publishing. Accessed from https://www.elgaronline.com/downloadpdf/edcoll/9781784715625/9781784715625.00032.pdf Retrieved on 05 August 2020. [ Links ]
LYNE, Chiliad.C., JONAS, N. AND ORTMANN, G.F. 2018. A quantitative assessment of outsourced agricultural extension service in the Accessed from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1389224X.2017.1387159 on 04 August 2020. [ Links ]
MAKOFANE, M. AND Greyness, M. 2014. Factors hindering the successful outcome of rural community projects. Soc. Wor/Maa. Wer. 43 (3). [ Links ]
MASHAMAITE, Yard.A. 2014. The Contributions of Smallholder Subsistence Agriculture towards Rural Household Nutrient Security in Maroteng Village, Limpopo Province. Published M. Dissertation, University of Limpopo, RSA. [ Links ]
MASUKU, M. SELEPE, M. AND NGCOBO, N. 2017. Small Calibration Agriculture in Enhancing Household Nutrient Security in Rural Areas. J Hum Ecol, 58 (iii): 153-161. DOI: ten.1080/09709274.2017.1317504. [ Links ]
MATHEBULA, J., MOLOKOMME, M., JONAS, Southward. AND NHEMACHENA, C. 2017. Estimation of household income diversification in South Africa: A case written report of three provinces. SA J. Sci., 113 (one/two): 1-9. [ Links ]
MATHEBULA, J.H. 2015. Determinants of household participation in agronomical production in Shatale region of the Bushbuckridge local municipality, Mpumalanga Province. Published M. Dissertation, University of Limpopo, RSA. [ Links ]
MAZIBUKO, Due north. Five. East. AND ANTWI, M. A. 2019. Socio-Economical Factors Influencing Smallholder Farmers Agricultural Infrastructure Availability, Accessibility and Satisfaction: A Case on North West Province in South Africa. OIDA Int. J. Sus. Dev., 12 (5): xi-26. [ Links ]
MEHRARA, Thou. AND BAGHBANPOUR, J. 2016. The Contribution of Industry and Agriculture Exports to Economic Growth: The Case of Developing Countries. Wor. Sci. New., 46: 100-111. [ Links ]
MEYER, D.F. AND NISHIMWE-NIYIMBANIRA, R. 2016. The impact of household size on poverty: An analysis of various depression-income townships in the Northern Gratis Country region, South Africa. Afri. Pop. Stud., 30 (2). [ Links ]
MOTHAE, T.J. 2017. Cess of communal land rights for smallholder farmers' access to markets in South Africa: Implications on gender (Doctoral dissertation, Academy of KwaZulu-Natal). [ Links ]
MTERO, F. 2017. Rural livelihoods, large-scale mining and agrestal change in Mapela, Limpopo, South Africa. Res. Pol., 53: 190-200. Accessed from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301420716303221 on 02 Baronial 2020. [ Links ]
MUGAMBIWA, S.S. AND TIRIVANGASI, H.Grand. 2017. Climatic change: A threat towards achieving 'Sustainable Development Goal number ii'(cease hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agronomics) in South Africa. Jàmbá: J. Dis. Adventure Stu, ix(1): 1-6. [ Links ]
MYENI, 50., MOELETSI, M., THAVHANA, Thousand., RANDELA, Yard. AND MOKOENA, 50. 2019. Barriers Affecting Sustainable Agronomical Productivity of Smallholder Farmers in the Eastern Free Land of Due south Africa. Sus. 11, 3003; DOI: 10.3390/su11113003. [ Links ]
NDABENI, L.L. 2016. An analysis of rural-urban linkages and their implications for policies that sustain development in a space continuum. Accessed from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chee_Hung Foo4/postal service/Has anyone done research_on_the_rural-urbanlinkages/attachment/59d62f3779197b807798d5de/As:357452013948928@1462234609974/download/ANALYSIS+OF+RURAL-URBAN+LINKAGES+AND+THEIR+IMPLICATIONS.pdf on 27 Baronial 2017. [ Links ]
NETHENGWE, N.Southward., UHUNAMURE, S. Due east. AND TINARWO, D. 2018. Potentials of biogas as a source of renewable energy: A case report of Southward Africa. Inte. J. Ren. Ene. Res., 8(2): 1112-1123. Accessed from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Tinarwo/publication/326235863_Potentials_of_biogas_as_a_source_of_renewable_energy_A_case_study_of_South_Africa/links/5e074d96a6fdcc283743b7fb/Potentials-of-biogas-every bit-a-source-of-renewable-energy-A-case-study-of-South-Africa.pdf. on o6 Baronial 2020. [ Links ]
NKONYA, E., GERBER, Due north. AND BAUMGARTNER, P. 2012. The economics of land degradation toward an integrated global cess. Dev. Eco. Pol., 66: 443-516. [ Links ]
POULSEN, M. Due north., MCNAB, P. R., CLAYTON, M. L. AND NEFF, R. A. 2015. A systematic review of urban agriculture and nutrient security impacts in low-income countries. Foo. Pol., 55: 131-146. [ Links ]
SAQIB, South.Eastward, KUWORNU, J. K. Chiliad., PANEZIA, S. AND ALI, U. 2018. Factors determining subsistence farmers' admission to agricultural credit in flood-prone areas of Pakistan. Kas. J. Soc. Sci., 39: 262-268. [ Links ]
SERTOGLU, K., UGURAL, South. AND BEKUN, F.V. 2017. The contribution of the agricultural sector on the economic growth of Nigeria. Int. J. Eco. Fin. Iss., 7(1): 547-552. [ Links ]
SEWELL, Southward.J. & DESAI, South. 2016. The Impacts of Undeveloped Roads on the Livelihoods of Rural Women. Rev. Soc. Sci., i(8): xv-29. Mathebula (2015 [ Links ]
SIBHATU, K.T. AND QAIM, M. 2017. Rural food security, subsistence agronomics, and seasonality. PLoS ONE 12(ten): e0186406. Accessed from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186406 on 06 August 2020. [ Links ]
SIHLOBO, Due west. AND NEL, L. 2016. Is South Africa'southward agricultural sector addressing inclusive socio-economic development? Opp. Chan., 68: 65. [ Links ]
STATISTICS Southward AFRICA (Stats SA). 2015. South Africa: Literacy charge per unit from 2007 to 2015, full and by gender. The statistic portal. Accessed from https://www.statista.com/statistics/572836/literacy-rate-in-south-africa/ on 13 September 2018. [ Links ]
TIBESIGWA, B. AND VISSER, Grand. 2016. Assessing gender inequality in nutrient security among small-holder farm households in urban and rural South Africa. Wor. Dev., 88: 33-49. [ Links ]
VAN AVERBEKE, W. AND KHOSA, T.B. 2007. The contribution of smallholder subsistence agriculture to the nutrition of rural households in semi-arid environment in South Africa. Westward. SA, 33(three): 413-418. [ Links ]
WALSH, C.M. AND VAN ROOYEN, F.C. 2015. Household food security and hunger in rural and urban communities in the Free State Province, Southward Africa. Ecology of food and nutrition, 54(two): 118-137. [ Links ]
World BANK. 2018. Unlocking the Potential of Agriculture for Afghanistan's Growth; Earth Bank: Washington, DC, USA. Accessed from www.worldbank.org/en/land/afghanistan/publication/unlocking-potentialof-agriculture-for-transitional islamic state of afghanistan-growth on half dozen August 2020. [ Links ]
YOU, Fifty., RINGLER, C., NELSON, M., WOOD-SICHRA, U., ROBERTSON, R. AND Woods, Due south. 2010. What is the irrigation potential for Africa? A combined biophysical and socioeconomic approach. IFPRI Word Paper 00993. Washington, DC. International Nutrient Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). [ Links ]
Qange South.
Email: siphesihleqange@gmail.com
Source: http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0301-603X2020000200008
0 Response to "Most African Families Still Depend on Subsistence Agriculture."
Post a Comment